Female Body Dissatisfaction

The Media's Influence on Female Body Dissatisfaction Too often we hear ourselves and others complain about the way we look. Females of all ages complain that they need to lose weight, need a nose Job, lip injections, Bottom, and implants. These surgical procedures are even advertised on public transportation. Most of us are not satisfied with our bodies even though we are considered healthy. What can possibly be the cause for most women to be dissatisfied with their natural bodies? Consider that most women are comparing themselves to unrealistic models in magazines and â€Å"perfect† bodies advertising assign and beauty products.Notice I quote the word perfect, I do this because I believe body image is subjective, yet many people don't think so anymore causing them to become dissatisfied with their bodies. This unfortunate dissatisfaction is caused by the way the media portrays beauty and the ideal body. Commissioning editor of The Observer magazine Eva Washman, In her persuas ive-informative article, â€Å"Uncomfortable in our skin: the body-image report,† discusses the media's massive role on the way most people, from pre teens to senior citizens, are dissatisfied with their bodies.She adopts an earnest tone in order to display Just how massive the media's role towards this issue is to her adult readers. Washman's purpose is to expose that the way the media displays the ideal attractive body will, has, and is causing people from as young as age seven to be dissatisfied with their body. Washman advises people, who feel dissatisfied with their bodies, to consume the media critically and realize that they are advertising trying to sell them something. In the beginning of her article washman arrives at the University of the West of England to visit the world's only Centre for Appearance Research (Car).There she meets the women of the Car, a team led by Professor Nicholas Ramsey and Dry Diana Harcourt, to discuss their research on how people deal with changing attitudes to appearance, and along the way helping answer the question: why do people, women and men, hate the way they look? She mentions to them that she doesn't like the way she looks as well. Throughout her article she points out four main points about the way the media is effecting the way people, specifically women, hate the way they look.First she points out that people are becoming dissatisfied with their appearance from a onus age and for many women it lasts almost forever. Second she points out that people who are dissatisfied with their appearance compare themselves to social networked strangers, celebrities, and to photodiode images provided by the media. Third she points out that It is the fashion industry fault for making skinny, bony, unhealthy models seem like the ideal â€Å"perfect body' because their size zero sample sizes force the media to advertise on such bodies.The fourth point, she adds, is that today's diets, which are continuously advertised by the media in magazines, TV, and he radio, are the way people are cognitively encouraged to eat and are to blame for their anxiety. Washman concludes that the best way for people to get past the media false portrayal of the ideal â€Å"perfect† body, is to consume the media critically by reminding themselves that the media is advertising, and they are Just trying to sell them a certain product. Washman also concludes that after leaving the Car she is still insecure with her appearance but she now has a better understanding of why she feels that way.Washman furthers her purpose by effectively combining the use of Logos, Ethos, and Pathos to expand her main points. Washman Effectively convinces her audience that the media has a massive role on the way most people, from pre teens to senior citizens, are dissatisfied with their bodies through the use of interviewing women who are in a powerful position in the media paired with emotional stories from victims of this dissatisfaction including herself. She also tells of her extensive research in the area to make her readers believe in her credibility.By using all 3 strategies, Logos, Ethos, and Pathos she effectively gets the reader to believe her logically, to relate emotionally, and to establish her authority. Although washman's article is strong and credible, I believe she personalizes the topic. The Car talks in general about the way people hate the way they look while she mainly focuses on the female sex. I think that took away from her purpose because she started out talking about both sexes but got into detail on only the effect it has on females. Also, throughout the article she misuses Ethos or authority by not citing her sources in some areas.I agree with all of Wigwams points completely, I can relate to them because I personally am dissatisfied with my appearance and she helped me analyze why the media is to blame for our dissatisfaction. Specifically thou I agree that our anxiety. I always feel so g uilty when I have a piece of chocolate or a bag of chips. The reason I feel guilty is because I feel like models and women who are considered sexy are watching out, working hard, and avoiding these foods, and I am eating them and not being as slim as the people who don't.Washman mention Bounce's Bibb post pregnancy weight loss in her article to support my thoughts and feelings. Washman's effective use of Logos and misuse of ethos appears in her first point; People are coming dissatisfied with their appearance at a young age, and in many cases this dissatisfaction lasts almost forever. She uses Logos or logic to prove her point by bringing in statistics. She explains that at age 5 children start to realize that their appearance is being Judged by others, at age seven they feel insecure and dissatisfied with their appearance, and that 90% of women in Britain feel anxious about their body image. Although she did somewhat prove her point she did not include her source here, which causes the audience to question her credibility of this topic. She then explained that this can almost last forever in some women. Contrastingly in this part of her evidence Washman clearly states â€Å"And it doesn't wane – many women in their ass are still anxious about the way their bodies look which, Professor Ramsey explains, can even affect their treatment in hospital, when their health choices are influenced by aesthetics. I agree with her because, being born in the mid ass's, I went through body dissatisfaction at a very young age. I used to cry to my mom when I was 6 because I didn't look anything like Barbie. Now I feel very ignorant for that but I still feel dissatisfied with my body even though I am at a healthy weight. She shows logic because her point is clear and specific, she has strong reason, and she gives evidence of her point, but her evidence is not completely credible therefore her logos or logic is not either because in order to have strong logic your eviden ce must also be credible.As you can see in her statistics she discuses males, she only speaks of females, this will most likely cause her body image-dissatisfied males to draw away from her article. Washman then uses Ethos in a better way along with pathos or emotion to continue to prove her first point. She connects herself by going back to her editing career. She tells a story about her emotions towards her appearance. She states â€Å"Two years ago I started writing a column for this magazine, illustrated by a photo of my face. At times it made me feel odd (l have never liked photos), at other times sad, often anxious.It made me more aware that I don't like the way I look, but more, I don't like the fact that I don't like it. But it's not Just me. All Car's research suggests that Britain's body image is in crisis. † Here she establishes authority effectively by connecting herself to the gist and she uses Car as a credible source. Pathos is used here because of her emotiona l story bout how she has been feeling dissatisfied with her appearance for the past two years of her career. The emotion she used is where the Pathos strategy comes in.She gets the audience to relate to her feelings by using this story to get there emotions going and to also get them to imagine the illustration of her face. She uses the words Odd, sad, and anxious. Her use of diction here is clear there is a pattern of sadness in her words to get the audience to realize how the media affects their emotions negatively Just like it does for her. I think she should have used a much stronger rod than sad, I would liked it if she used the word gloomy or even another word that is more intense such as depressed.Also I think the women and men reading this will find themselves questioning what exactly made her feel sad, odd, and anxious. What about the illustration made her feel that way? She does not demonstrate the illustration at all. I think if she was more specific, It would bring more emotion to them and help them imagine the illustration more vividly. Wigwams point that people who are dissatisfied with their appearance compare themselves to social worked strangers, celebrities, and to photodiode images revived by the media is proven by her effective use of logic.This time she establishes better Ethos or authority to make it much more credible. â€Å"We've always compared ourselves to other people, but what has changed is the way we use images. † She says. She then brings up a famous study, to back her claim up, which looked at teenage girls in Fiji after TV was introduced to them in 1995. The study showed that after three years of the girls watching TV, the most ones who watched it were 50% more likely to describe themselves as â€Å"too fat†; 29% scored highly on a test of eating-disorder risk.Her clear use of statistics and logic causes her audience to believe what she is saying because she has evidence, a scientific study, to go with her thesis. She establishes credibility by proving that the media really does have a massive affect on their body dissatisfaction and the evidence is there to speak for her. I can't agree with her more on this. The medias role here is way too clear. Many of my friends are always out to get that celebrity look and do not feel satisfied because they will never look exactly like that celebrity.I think if this study was done again in 2013 the rates would be much higher. Washman uses Pathos or emotion and Ethos or authority to prove her third point; It is the fashion industry fault for making skinny, bony, unhealthy models seem like the ideal â€Å"perfect body' because their size zero sample sizes force the media to advertise on such bodies. Washman decides to use a personal interview with the editor of Vogue Alexandra Sultan. Washman explains that Sultan herself knows that â€Å"real people†, actors featured in Vogue, don't fit sample size cloths.Her exact words are â€Å"We're sitting i n her bright white office, beside shelves displaying international Vogue covers. She points at them one by one. Washman says. † As she pointed at them one by one washman says that she that she explained that the celebrities in each of the covers were wearing sample sizes that fit them tight, unlike the models. † The way she presents this information is much more detailed and adds vivid images of their conversation. This kind of vivid information presented with such strong imaginary detail is a great example of the way Washman uses detail in proving her third point.She continues to add evidence, but now she uses Ethos. She speaks of sultans efforts to get the fashion industry to roved larger sample sizes because she did not like that their tiny designs were forcing editors to shoot them on models with no â€Å"breasts or hips†. Washman then asks sultan if she has seen any change throughout her efforts. Sultan sees that there is still a bit off blindness and the fas hion industry does not realize that people want to see something different. I completely agree with sultan because I am the same way as well.I am Muslim and often times I prefer shopping at boutiques owned by other Muslims because they provide Muslim and middle eastern fashion and there models wear a hajji Just like I do. Washman also agrees with her by saying â€Å"She's right†, but she doesn't stop there she adds her evidence. She states â€Å"Ben Barry (a PhD student at Cambridge University) surveyed 3,000 women, the vast majority of whom significantly increase purchase intentions when they see a model that reflects their age, size and race†. Here Washman demonstrates complete credibility.She demonstrates respect for sultans viewpoint and thoughts. Backs up both her thoughts and Sultans thoughts with credible evidence and sources, and she cited her source correctly. Her fourth point claiming that Today's diets, which are mutinously advertised by the media in magazin es, TV, and the radio, are the way people are cognitively encouraged to eat and are to blame for their anxiety she combines the use of ethos and logos to show credibility and then uses pathos to get her audience to emotionally feel her thesis. Washman starts out with the use of statistics.She begins by mentioning that rates of depression in women and girls doubled between 2000 and 2010 then she adds that the more women self objectify themselves the more they become depressed. She proposes that this is caused by the medias warm embrace of disordered eating. Then she backs up her thoughts with evidence. â€Å"Garcia reports that Beyond lost 60 pounds of â€Å"baby weight† by eating only lettuce. Cosmopolitan wrote about Kate Middleman's â€Å"Dugan diet†, which begins with seven days of pure protein, and later two â€Å"celebration meals† a week.If women don't look like Beyond or Kate Middleton, their flat stomachs a testament to their stamina then, it seems, the y are not working hard enough. † here she is using Logos by providing deductive reasoning. She uses this by first stating her evidence then proving her thoughts towards it and adding it to her thesis or point. She adds ethos to it by providing her sources correctly in this case her magazine titles while titillating them. This establishes her credibility. She continues to prove her fourth point by interviewing Lauren codger.Washman explains that Codger is, in her words, â€Å"One celebrity whose body is frequently scrutinized (and scorned) by the tabloid media†. Washman meets with Codger as she is weeks into a drastic diet plan. Washman says to her: † Many women feel Judged on their appearance in some way, but what does it feel like to have those verdicts read by 99 million people a month? † Now before I mention Codgers response I want to mention that washman most probably chose that question knowing that Codger is going to have an emotional response.She does this so she can be able to provide Pathos or emotion when she comes to write about her interview to her audience women who somewhat share the same feelings. Washman said that Codger responded by saying â€Å"l can't look at comments. I can't buy the mass any more. I used to love them, but I was happy then. Then my weight became a story, not Just for the show but for the press. Yeah, I'm definitely aware of the online scrutiny. My body becomes my work. † Codgers Response causes people who are dissatisfied with their bodies to feel worse for codger than they feel for themselves after reading this.Codger is one of the victims who find that today's diets are the way they cognitively feel encouraged to eat and are to blame for their anxiety. In sum, Washman's Article is very useful because it demonstrates the media's massive role on the way females, from pre teens to senior citizens, are dissatisfied with their bodies. It offers ways the media is trying to avoid this negative inf luence, the reasons fate the influence, who is to blame, ND what women can possibly do about it, even thou they do not have control over the way the media portrays beauty.Although it provides all these aspects to prove her thesis, I do not consider it one 100% credible because Washman forgets to cite some sources and loses focus when talking about women specifically instead of all people generally as she first stated. I Think both sexes are dissatisfied with their appearance equally from the media's false portrayal of beauty and the ideal body image.

Icts in the Tourism Industry and Its Influences on the Tourist Consumer Behaviour

The tourism industry often needs a various range of information to satisfy and attracts its consumers and most of this information is delivered promptly to the customers with the help of the information and communication technologies (Poon, 1993). And as result, the global tourism industry is rapidly changing and the information and communication technologies ( ICTs) such as the internet is altering the structure of tourism industry and how it market his products and conducts its promotion. In order to understand the role and impacts that ICTs has in the wider tourism industry and to find its influences on the tourist consumer behaviour, it is advised to first know what ICTs are and to comprehend the study on consumer behaviour based on the tourism industry. Information and communication technologies are defined as the collective term given to the most recent development in the mode (electronic) and the mechanisms (computers and communications technologies) used for the acquisitions, processing analysis, storage, retrieval, dissemination, and application of information (Poon 1993 cited in Buhalis 2003, p 7). It can also be defined as â€Å"the use of digital tools for business functions and processes† (Cooper et al 2005, p. 704). When tailing about ICTs, it consist of hardware (self service terminals), software (front office applications), and telecommunications (broadcast of images, teleconferencing †¦ ), and the groupware (tools for group communications such as email). The last one is the humanware which consist of skilled people responsible for the maintenance and programming. Any of these are used in the tourism industry for a better management of operation and communication between stakeholders. The Tourism industry had really gained from the evolution of information technology with the emergence of computerised networks that change the whole stage of the distribution and marketing of tourism products. The most popular and successful applications of ICT used in the tourism industry are the computer reservation systems, the global distribution systems and the internet. In the early 1970s, the airline industry developed the computer reservation systems, an application that became the most important channel of distribution for airlines, and even big hotel companies and tour operators started using it after they recognized the benefit of computerised system. The computer reservation system (CRSs) is† essentially a database which manages the inventory of a tourism enterprise, whilst it distributes it electronically to remote sales ffices and external partners† (Buhalis, 1998). It created the possibility for suppliers to quickly confirm the booking reservations made by consumers but the consumers were also able to use the CRSs to access information of different destinations, packages holidays, and hotels, and used that information to compare prices to find the best deal. The computer reservation system gave tourism organisation the power to manage their products and trade with the rest of the world. The mid 1990 saw the computer reservation system emerged into the global distribution systems (GDSs), the â€Å"system that distribute reservations and information services to sales outlets around the world† (Giaoutzi and Nijkamp 2006, p. 24). It did not just contains information of flights and hotels like the CRSs but had a wide range of services and products linked to tourism such as entertainment, car rental, lodging, train ticketing. Both the CRSs and the GDSs are known also to reduce the cost of communication, and to provide information on the competition. During the time that the GDSs was developing, the internet and World Wide Web was providing direct opportunities for tourism suppliers to interact with its customers by offering less expensive information on services and destinations. Companies like easy-jet uses the internet to offer its services directly to the customers and because the internet also offers consumer the possibility to tailor their own holiday, which is why websites like expedia are becoming expanding and popular. During every step of a transaction or deal of the tourism product, there is a lot of information that need to be exchange between every party involved. So the information and communication technologies role is to help the clients and tourism intermediaries have accessed to accurate information and data. These exchanges of information need to be done quickly as the suppliers rely on it to meets the customers’ requests. So the use of ICTs in the tourism industry has turned into a universal feature and power that help and manage information and transfer them all over the world instantaneously. And Buhalis (1998) states that the day to day operations of the tourism industry have been affected by the use of the ICTS. The distribution and marketing function of the tourism industry has been transformed as they use ICTs to target the consumers meet their needs and also the adoption of information and communication technologies by the airlines companies has been an advantage point for them as it help them control and manage reservations. So t goes to say that the fundamental structure of the tourism industry has been reformed by ICTs and businesses involved in tourism will need to keep improving their services to meet the increases level of customer demand that now require fast and accurate information. Despite the fact that the information and communication technologies has broaden the industry capacity of distribution, there are also some issues brought by the same ICTs that could impacts the future operation of the travel industry. According to Thorn and Chen (2005), the risk of losing human resource in business is higher with the application of ICTs. The increase of demand of employees with new technology skills has left existing employees in fear of losing their jobs as businesses are looking for way to accommodate those customers who need their suppliers to respond to new sophisticated demand and information. In this case, it is up to the management team of each tourism business who adopt the use of new technology to offer some intensive training for staff in order to success. But beside the human resource impact, the most talked about impact is the issue of disintermediation in the tourism industry. Disintermediation happen when suppliers and companies are met by a growing pressure from competitors and rising prices (Werthner and Klein, 2001), so to survive in this new technology environment, they set up their own distribution channel such as a website where they can directly offer the consumers the opportunity to tailor their own holiday and look through various range of products online. And by doing that they often save money and Thorn and Chen (2005) raise the fact that travel agencies are quite a risk because of disintermediation which result to booking at travels agents going down by 35% and also they are at risk of losing some of their commissions that came from selling products from tours operators and airlines companies. ICTs caused then to deal with competitions and those who cannot often lose their business but there are always customers who look for the physical contact when it came to book their holiday. The need of face to face interaction still gives travel agents the chance to stay in the tourism chain. Over the years, the information and communication technologies also had an impact on the consumer too, because of the improvements that ICTs bring on the quality of services given by tourism organisations. By allowing consumers to make fast reservations or save money by comparing price through the internet, ICTs created a new type of consumers who are now becoming more ophisticated and skilled. With the consumer behaviours changing, it is up to the tourism organisations to try and understand the motivation behind their choice of destination, or figure out the type of environment that influence their decision to purchase a product instead of another. All of these researches and their answers are quite important as it would help suppliers and companies develop new marketing strategies for products that would reach the appropriate market. The study of consumer behaviour is based on finding out the reason why consumers purchase some products and trying to understand how they came to the decision of making that decision (Swarbrooke and Horner, 1999). This study gives organisations some clues on the why and how that customer came to make a choice between various destinations or products, so with any results find from this study, it will enable them to target the customers and persuade them to buy their products because of the consumer previous making decision purchase. But for the consumers to make a decision there is a lot of factors that come to play and influence them toward the right product. Those factors are the determinants (what make you choose a holiday or not) and motivators (the drive to travel) (Swarbrooke and Horner, 1999). Determinants in consumer behaviour can be internal and external. Internal determinants often consist of factors which are personal to the customer such as choosing a travel destination based on work or business obligation, fear, health problems or commitment with family. Some of those are quite important and they tend to determine and have an effect on the type of travel to book or they can also prevent the consumer to travel. In the external determinant category, consumer can be influenced by the media around them, friends and sometimes a marketing campaign. Motivators in the other hand are the reasons that push the tourists toward travelling. Often motivators are split into two different categories, the general motivators and the specific ones. Some general motivators mentioned by Thomas (1964, cited in Moutinho, 1987) are the cultural and educational motivators which push tourists to discover new culture and lifestyle, to do some sightseeing or explore monuments, and he also identified pleasure, adventure and relaxation as other motivators that provide people with a reason to travel, especially when trying to switch off from the daily routine of their life and just go on holiday to have some fun. And regarding the specific motivators, Moutinho (1987) also contributed in the study by aying that specific motivators tends to come from knowledge, previous experience , recommendation or opinions given by relatives and friends; and it can also come from the travel organisation via the media. The study of consumer behaviour in tourism is helped by various models and processes adapted from others researchers which show clarifications on what goes on when consumers are deciding to make a purchase. In order to understand some behavi our of tourists, this essay will go through the destination decision making process, the recreational behaviour model and stimulus-response model of buyer behaviour. The tourism industry provides two types of products, the tangibles and the intangibles, but because most of it is intangibles, it is difficult to evaluate the products before purchasing so, it often down to images and information of the tourism products that the consumers can make a purchase decision. The tourist decision making process by kotler (1998) shows, that before coming to a decision about buying a product, the consumer goes through various steps. These stages are the need of recognition; information search; evaluation of alternatives; selection of services or products; and the post purchase assessment. In the need of recognition of the buying decision process, the first thing for consumers is to acknowledge that they have a problem or need to purchase a service or products. And by being aware of their need, it is now up to the consumers to find a solution that would give them satisfaction at the end. So it’s next to the second stage of information search where the customer is motivated into doing some intense research to find the correct information which will lead to a decision. There is lot of ways for the tourist to find the information needed. He can go through the search stage by using his own knowledge of the products or he will rely on the external search (Pan and Fesenmaier, 2006) which consist of advertising resources and personal ones. Brochures, travel books and relatives are some of the examples of sources that consumers used to find information, and because of these external sources, tourism organisation identify and learn about the sources since they provide consumers with valuable information that sway their decision. The internet is also another source for consumer to gain access to information in this stage of the decision making with Lake (2001) stressing that almost 95% of people collect information related to travel via the internet and with 93% admitted to visit websites of tourism companies. After gathering enough information, the next move for the consumer is the evaluation of alternative where come the process of comparing and finding the best solution of their problems. Often at this stage, the quality of the products and services will determine how much it is going to satisfy the consumer when they are trying to compare it the products with other alternatives (Kotler, 1998). During the purchase decision process, Kotler (1998) normally consumers have a tendency to buy their favourite brands or products but occasionally the purchase decision become influenced by other people around the consumers, for example parents who are planning to book a holiday with younger children, will not choose an adult oriented holiday destination because they need to consider their children before going into the purchasing stage. Purchasing the products or service from a specific supplier is the fourth step and it will be wrong to think that paying for the vacation is the end of the purchase decision process. In the post purchase evaluation, the consumer will make an assessment like some feedback to see if they had a happy experience when they used the products. A good experience will often lead the consumers to reuse the same products and verbally promote it. And the tourism organisations also find the post purchase stage really valuable to them as the satisfaction level of consumer will turn into loyalty toward the products or services. In the recreational behaviour model, researchers are looking to observe how consumers behave when they decide to travel and (Clawson and Knetch, 1966 cited in Hanlan, Fuller and Wilde, 2006) said that deciding to travel is not a simple process because it also has five phases that make use of some stages of the destination decision making process. The recreational behaviour model start with the anticipation phase where the consumer is thinking about the trip and where all the planning of the trip is being done by including the stage of need of recognition and search of information that was mentioned in the destination decision making process. After the planning phase, it is the travelling to the site stage which can also includes the mode of transport that the consumer is going to use to reach the destination. For example using the orient express as a mode of transport can be seen as a luxury travel experience by itself for the consumer even before they reach their destination. So once at the destination, the model next phase is the behaviour on the site where the consumer arrive to the destination and make use of the services available to him. The behaviour of the consumer once on site is widely influenced by his experience of the services offered. Everything that happened to the consumers during the stay at the destination will impact the last stage of this model, as after travelling back home, the consumers have to have a recollection and recall stage which will consist of the post purchase evaluation stage that Kotler identified in the decision process. Compare to other models of consumer behaviour, the stimulus-response model of buyer behaviour by Middleton (1994) has been modified in order to help the tourism organisation have an understanding of the consumer behaviour during the buying process. In this model, the determinants and motivators that influenced the buying behaviour of the consumer are separated from each other, and at the same time this model also looks at the impacts that the communication channel used by tourism organisation has on the tourist buying process. The stimulus response model of buying behaviour has been based on four elements with the buyer characteristics and decision process being at the core of the buying behaviour. The travel stimuli, the communication channels, the characteristic of the consumer together with the decision process have all an effect on the consumer buying behaviour. The characteristics of the buyer which is made of the motivators and determinants influence the consumer recognition of the travel stimuli and if the consumer is interested by the products that the travel stimulus offered, the decision making process will determine when the buying process will began. The development of Information and communication technologies transformed the tourist behaviour when it comes to searching, booking and buying processes. In the information search, the consumer has the opportunity to find a wide range of information provided by the accommodation sectors, the destinations and airline companies by the use of new technology. And for making their booking, the reservation system put in place allow the consumers to access and make payment online. So it is clear to say that the tools of ICTs allowed companies to embrace technology to be essential to their communication and marketing approach in order to give consumer the freedom to undertaken any process without the help of an intermediaries. The change in consumer behaviour by ICT has been strongly influenced by the internet because it helps the suppliers communicate directly with the consumers who offer the possibility to tailor the products to their taste and need. (Buhalis and Law, 2008) So to finish, this essay has shown that the development of information and communication technologies and its use in the tourism industry had quite an impact on the structure of the industry. It did bring new opportunities to the business by opening different channel for the promotion and distribution of the tourism products and ICTs also allow the customers to quickly receive information no matter the distance. But the loss of human interaction with the use of ICT and the disintermediation has been some of the challenge or problems that the development of technology brought in the industry. So to be successful and retain their customers, tourism organisations has to adopt the technology and adapt it into their businesses. And by trying to understand the effect that information and communication technologies has on the consumer behaviour, I went on to gather information of three different models based on what goes on the mind of the consumer when they are trying to choose a destination, or buy a product. In the models mentioned in this essay, the consumer is often guided with the help of information gathered during the information search stage to make a decision and these models always end with the feedback stage where the consumer expresses their satisfaction or dissatisfaction. References – Buhalis, D. 1998 â€Å"Strategic used of information technology in the tourism industry†. Tourism Management, 19 (5), pp 409-421 – Buhalis, D. (2003). E-Tourism: information technology for strategic tourism management, Harlow: Pearson Education Limited – Buhalis, D and Law, R (2008) ‘Progress in information technology and tourism management: 20 years on and 10 years after the internet – the state of tourism research’ Tourism Management 29, 609-623 – Cooper et al (2005) Tourism, Principles and practice. 3rd ed. Harlow: Pearson Education limited – Giaoutzi, M and Nijkamp, P. (2006) Tourism and regional development: new pathways. Aldershot: Ashgate Publishing Ltd – Hanlan, J, Fuller, D and Wilde, S (2006) ‘Destination decision making: the need for a strategic planning and management approach’, Tourism and Hospitality Planning and Development, Vol. 3, No. 3, 209-221 – Kotler, P. H. (1998) Marketing Management: Analysis, Planning, and Control, 8th Ed. Englewood Cliffs: Prentice-Hall Inc. – Lake, D. (2001) Americans Go Online for Travel Information. [WWW] Available from:

ECON 4020-001 - Intermed Macroecon Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

ECON 4020-001 - Intermed Macroecon - Essay Example Davidson suggests that US increased the national debt during wars and recessionary periods because during those times only spender is government. The spending by the government therefore stimulates the necessary domestic demand which creates more jobs and increases the consumption. He provides evidence of how large deficits by the government during war and recessionary times actually were followed by periods of economic prosperity as well as job creation. Era after World War II was an era which was economically more prosperous than the times before war and one of the most important reasons for this was the government spending during war times by the US government and resulting large deficits. Davidson therefore suggests that actual task of fiscal policy is to act as a balancing wheel to generate sufficient aggregate demand which can stimulate entrepreneurs to create new jobs and deter from imposing or raising taxes to reduce the fiscal deficit and remove the role of government from the economy. Robert J Barrow’s article â€Å"Robin Hood Cant Lead Us Out of the Debt Hole: Obamas obsession with higher tax rates on the rich is not helpful† however focuses upon the argument of raising marginal taxes for rich in America to finance the fiscal deficit of the country. Barrow suggests that the current government in US may be missing the point that by increasing the government expenditure, multiplier effect can have a positive impact on the economy. He presents the recent historical analysis of the financial crisis and how the government actually allowed Lehman Brothers to fail to actually initiate a systematic failure of important institutions. Barrow therefore argues that rather than taxing the rich, the overall composition of the federal government needs to be changed. Government shall increase the maximum age limit for the entitlement of the social security as well as further rationalize the federal government

Isetan Company Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Isetan Company - Essay Example Isetan Company I did my internship for 3 months at the buying office of Isetan in New York branch. It is located in the 40th street of Madison Avenue. I did the position of manager’s assistant and my main responsibilities were to research new American brands for Japanese buyers and to organize all schedule for fashion collections. This paper is written as the strategic analysis of Isetan, based on both internal and external business environments (SWOT and PEST analysis) The major strength of Isetan is its wide product range. Products like ladies wear, ladies accessories, bags and shoes, ladies cosmetics, and fragrances, watch, jewellery, babies/children wear, household/ interior goods, mean’s wear, men’s accessories, shoes, Men’s grooming, sports accessories etc are some of the products of Isetan. Isetan has products which can satisfy all the people irrespective of their age or gender and hence a family can depend Isetan for its complete purchasing needs. Another strength of Isetan is the research and development department. This department constantly monitoring the fashion trends all over the world and they were able to produce high quality fashion goods based on the changing needs of the customers. In other words, Isetan was able to foresee the trends in fashion and they were able to adapt themselves based on that. They never rely entirely on one kind of product for their business. Children, adults and old people, all are dealt with equal importance and hence all the customers who visit Isetan department stores will return with utmost satisfaction.

Black & Deker-Eastern Hemisphere and the ADP Initiative Case Study

Black & Deker-Eastern Hemisphere and the ADP Initiative - Case Study Example In October 1995, Bill Lancaster was appointed as the President of Black & Decker Eastern Hemisphere. Within a few months of working there he was faced with a critical decision of selecting a new system of functioning within the organization. On one hand manager HR Anita Lin proposed a new performance appraisal and management development system and on the other hand should he introduce Appraisal Development Plan (ADP) throughout the eastern hemisphere. Before being position as the President of Black & Decker Eastern Hemisphere , Lancaster had seen the level of success ADP brought to the U.S and was quite impressed by its performance in terms of management development. But will the ADP be suitable choice for the Asian organization culture or not? The main problem existed over the question of 360Â ° feedback element. Lancaster was bothered that whether the employees will be comfortable working in an environment where your performance gets feedback from your managers, coworkers, subordi nates & peers. Another concern that Lancaster had about the Eastern Hemisphere headquarter was that Black & Decker had either spent or committed to spend $80 million for the setup of Singapore headquarters and new factories in India, China and Singapore itself. But the main problem laid in that in the early 90’s Black & Decker ranked 5th in Asia and had a very weak share. From the case its evident that this also bothered Lancaster that even after investing so much what if the position did not improve much or didn’t improve at all. Lancaster also found out that there was no specific system in place and various managers operated in styles which they were comfortable with; some preferred empowerment of there subordinates, while others believed in the traditional authoritarian styles. The Gap between the bosses and their subordinates in this part of the globe has always existed. People were very reluctant and cautious while talking about people higher than their ranks beca use of the fear of developing negative opinion and grudges in the minds of the people they commented on. 1b. will ADP address those weaknesses? how? After getting promoted as the President of Eastern Hemisphere Lancaster started off to analyze the weaknesses in the system there by talking with the employees throughout the organization. Firstly interviewing MAC of Eastern Hemisphere which was composed of the directly reporting members to the Headquarters of Black & Decker. Next he also gave time listening to the people other than officers and leaders of the organization. A traditional MBO(management by objective) - type system was being used which had been replaced in the US some time back. Although half of the fortune 500 companies had MBO system but they were not completely happy with it and when ADP system came they quickly shifted to it. ADP will resolve the weaknesses in the following manner: By implementing the ADP system in the Eastern Hemisphere the Boss-Subordinate gap can b e bridged and the employees can feel relaxed while working increasing the much needed productivity to step up the ranks. ADP system would make managers interact with their subordinates more often hence making them keep a track of individual employee performance and can guide them in one way or other. A calm and peaceful working environment will be formed as everyone will take care of their attitude and behavior with each other while at work as they know they’ll be evaluated on this basis apart from their work performance. It

American Government - partisan press and yellow journalism Essay

American Government - partisan press and yellow journalism - Essay Example Once they have projected their thoughts, they are bold and intensively expressive of the subject matter in question. The major differences between the two types of journalism are what they majorly concentrate on in their publications. Yellow journalism is more concerned with eye catching, over exaggerated and thought provoking themes. The claims are mostly unsubstantiated. Partisan press entails media concentration on the events and activities of one political party. This information is carried over the top at the expense of the other political parties. In recent times, the Houston Chronicle has come under fire for partisan coverage. This is because it has over concentrated on activities, events and information concerning the Democratic Party. A good example of yellow journalism is the story run on the front page of the LA Times in September 2009. In bold, they claimed that   Ã¢â‚¬Å"Our state is in a fiscal crisis, Republicans refuse to let us pass a single tax increase whatsoever, we do not tax oil companies for their profits, and the legislature just passed a budget that makes $15 billion in  dreadful cuts  to education and health care, and $11 billion in reckless borrowing† (Hogarth, 2009). This created unnecessary financial shivers as many made an attempt to purchase the paper for detailed information, which was, not sufficiently researched. Hindman, D. B., Littlefield, R. Preston, A., & Dennis Neumann. "Structural Pluralism, Ethnic Pluralism, and Community Newspapers."  Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly  76, no. 2 (Summer 1999): 250–263.

Marketing Environment of Walker Crisps Case Study

Marketing Environment of Walker Crisps - Case Study Example Findings, analysis and the key issues will be highlighted. When an individual is dealing with the market there are some issues that are considered and they include things like the potential markets and the consumers and the driving forces behind sales trends and the strengths and weaknesses in market. In the 1880s, the director R. E. Gerald helped the meat industry that was falling to come up with an alternative industry and that is how walker crisps began by a man known as Henry Walker. At the present time the owner of walker is Frito-lay (Andrews, 2004) the advert by Gary in 2000 was the 9th best commercial television of all time. The authority said that the TV Commercial and poster viewers make unjustified claims on health regarding the new recipe for crisps. The TV commercial also featured that the saturated oils were reduced by 70%. According to Graham Cash Macgregor chairman, the reduced salt and saturated oil makes the walker crisps better. Cash challenges walkers by saying that 8% of the salt is contained in the crisps for adults. According to a new walker's TV advert, 100% of the walkers crisps are made from British purely formed potatoes and they demonstrate the commitment of walker's to produce quality and also to the industry of the farming. Gary explains that the weather of the British helps in the growth of British potatoes that makes the perfect good quality of walkers' crisps and hence making of these quality crisps. Alongside the advertisement from the TV, the spending of the market has included advertising from outdoor and also practical demonstrations in UK at the events that are across and also giving hands on to consumers on how crisp are created up to the pack from spud. The saturation of walker crisps is reduced such that a bag contains a gram less of the

How Thomas Church and Andrew Jackson Downing were from two different Essay

How Thomas Church and Andrew Jackson Downing were from two different eras but both were influential in establishing the pattern - Essay Example Both men shared the opinion that gardens should be for everyone; indeed, the title of Thomas Church’s book, Gardens are for People, seems to say everything about his philosophy on gardens, believing that they are for people to enjoy, not just look at (Tilston). Downing, as well, thought that gardens should be accessible to all, not just the well-to-do members of society, and lobbied hard with politicians to create a space of greenery in New York City, accessible to all (R.). Though working in different time frames and with different areas of the country, both Downing and Church have had a lasting influence on gardens seen by those living in the present-day era, mainly due to their willingness to go against what was considered â€Å"conventional† at the time during their work, but also because they believed that gardens, plants, and greenery should be accessible to all, not just the wealthy. Andrew Jackson Downing was born on October 15, 1831, in Newburg, New York. He fi nished his schooling at the age of 16, and came by his love of landscaping and gardening honestly, as his father ran a nursery in which he worked after finishing school (â€Å"Living Places†). ... udson River, those with money to spend immediately bough trade gardening books from merchant-class England, where they were popular (â€Å"Gardenvisit.com†). Gardens of the working class, or â€Å"those raised between the plow handles† (â€Å"Smithsonian Gardens†) were limited to functionality. They were not interested in growing a beautiful plant or flower to look at, but how many vegetables could be grown to feed the usually ever-growing family. Downing had an undeniable and lasting effect on American landscape and gardening with the publishing of his first book, A Treatise on the Theory and Practice of Landscape Gardening, Adapted to North America, published in 1841. The book, the first of its kind to be published in North America, brought immediate fame and recognition as people realized, perhaps for the first time, that they did not have to have large gardens filled with exotic plants; their style could be more of a simple taste. People also realized, as pro moted through Downing, that they could use the natural beauty of their surroundings and plants that were native to North America to define their style (â€Å"Smithsonian Gardens†). Though Downing was a follower of the English style of gardens, as well as the Greek Revival style of homes, he carefully tailored his book to the needs of North Americans, recognizing several key points (â€Å"Smithsonian Gardens†). First and foremost, Downing recognized that the soils of North America were different from that of Europe, and therefore would need plants and flora that grew and prospered in North America, not imports from Europe, along with the belief that Americans were not aristocratic like most of Europe, and therefore should celebrate their republicanism, hence his designs for middle and lower class cottages and gardens

HY 1110-08F-2, AMERICAN HISTORY I (HY1110-08F-2) Essay

HY 1110-08F-2, AMERICAN HISTORY I (HY1110-08F-2) - Essay Example Me, a single citizen of this nation, has a voice that will be heard. I am empowered with an authority that the government will listen to. In this day and age, it is a breather to know that the power resides in the people and that the people creates the government. There is a balance between what the people and the government can do. I know that my individual right is protected even from the government and from those in power. And I live with the assurance that a balance exists between the rights of the people and the power of the government to rule the people. As a student I can greatly relate to my right to speak freely or to meet as group. I bask in my liberty to share my mind without fear of being abdicated nor unjustly punished. Isn’t it great that each is given a chance to air grievance and directly participate in the political process? Not only am I entitled to vote, I can write and participate in political campaigns as well. This makes one think that those in authority are certainly interested in the voice of the masses. As a student, I am empowered and I feel important. As for my family, safety and security in our own home is another thing that we value most. A home will never be a home in the truest sense of the word if not for the safety it brings for every family member. The Bill of Rights afforded each family against unjust searches and protection within. Peace of mind for me and my family is indeed priceless. Lastly, in my view, the ratified amendments, beyond its legal implications, brings forth a grave impact in my life because it serves as an education for me. Education of what I am entitled to as a citizen of this nation and enlightens me to be vigilant in protecting and standing up for my rights, guarding it at all cost from any possible oppression. James Madison, being the â€Å"Father of The Bill of Rights† feels for every

Collaboration and Innovation at Procter & Gamble Essay Example for Free

Collaboration and Innovation at Procter Gamble Essay Look in your medicine cabinet. No matter where you live in the world, odds are that you’ll find many Procter Gamble products that you use every day. PG is the largest manufacturer of consumer products in the world, and one of the top 10 largest companies in the world by market capitalization. The company is known for its successful brands, as well as its ability to develop new brands and maintain its brands’ popularity with unique business innovations. Popular PG brands include Pampers, Tide, Bounty, Folgers, Pringles, Charmin, Swiffer, Crest, and many more. The company has approximately 140,000 employees in more than 80 countries, and its leading competitor is Britain-based Unilever. Founded in 1837 and headquartered in Cincinnati, Ohio, PG has been a mainstay in the American business landscape for well over 150 years. In 2009, it had $79 billion in revenue and earned a $13.2 billion profit. PG’s business operations are divided into three main units: Beauty Care, Household Care, and Health and Well-Being, each of which are further subdivided into more specific units. In each of these divisions, PG has three main focuses as a business. It needs to maintain the popularity of its existing brands, via advertising and marketing; it must extend its brands to related products by developing new products under those brands; and it must innovate and create new brands entirely from scratch. Because so much of PG’s business is built around brand creation and management, it’s critical that the company facilitate collaboration between researchers, marketers, and managers. And because PG is such a big company, and makes such a wide array of products, achieving these goals is a daunting task. PG spends 3.4 percent of revenue on innovation, which is more than twice the industry average of 1.6 percent. Its research and development teams consist of 8,000 scientists spread across 30 sites globally. Though the company has an 80 percent â€Å"hit† rate on ideas that lead to products, making truly innovative and groundbreaking new products is very difficult in an extremely competitive field like consumer products. What’s more, the creativity of bigger companies like PG has been on the decline, with the top consumer goods companies accounting for only 5 percent of patents filed on home care products in the early 2000s. Finding better ways to innovate and develop new ideas is critical in a marketplace like consumer goods, and for any company as large as PG, finding methods of collaboration that are effective across the enterprise can be difficult. That’s why PG has been active in implementing information systems that foster effective collaboration and innovation. The social networking and collaborative tools popularized by Web 2.0 have been especially attractive to PG management, starting at the top with former CEO A.G. Lafley. Lafley was succeeded by Robert McDonald in 2010, but has been a major force in revitalizing the company. When Lafley became PG’s CEO in 2000, he immediately asserted that by the end of the decade, the company would generate half of its new product ideas using sources from outside the company, both as a way to develop groundbreaking innovations more quickly and to reduce research and development costs. At the time, Lafley’s proclamation was considered to be visionary, but in the past 10 years, PG has made good on his promise. The first order of business for PG was to develop alternatives to business practices that were not sufficiently collaborative. The biggest culprit, says Joe Schueller, Innovation Manager for PG’s Global Business Services division, was perhaps an unlikely one: e-mail. Though it’s ostensibly a tool for communication, e-mail is not a sufficiently collaborative way to share information; senders control the flow of information, but may fail to send mail to colleagues who most need to see it, and colleagues that don’t need to see certain e-mails will receive mailings long after they’ve lost interest. Blogs and other collaborative tools, on the other hand, are open to anyone interested in their content, and attract comments from interested users. However, getting PG employees to actually use these newer products in place of e-mail has been a struggle for Schueller. Employees have resisted the changes, insisting that newer collaborative tools represent more work on top of e-mail, as opposed to a better alternative. People are accustomed to e-mail, and there’s significant organizational inertia against switching to a new way of doing things. Some PG processes for sharing knowledge were notoriously inefficient. For instance, some researchers used to write up their experiments using Microsoft Office applications, then print them out and glue them page by page into notebooks. PG was determined to implement more efficient and collaborative methods of communication to supplant some of these outdated processes. To that end, PG launched a total overhaul of its collaboration systems, led by a suite of Microsoft products. The services provided include unified communications (which integrates services for voice transmission, data transmission, instant messaging, e-mail, and electronic conferencing), Microsoft Live Communications Server functionality, Web conferencing with Live Meeting, and content management with SharePoint. According to PG, over 80,000 employees use instant messaging, and 20,000 use Microsoft Outlook, which provides tools for e-mail, calendaring, task management, contact management, note taking, and Web browsing. Outlook works with Microsoft Office SharePoint Server to support multiple users with shared mailboxes and calendars, SharePoint lists, and meeting schedules. The presence of these tools suggests more collaborative approaches are taking hold. Researchers use the tools to share the data they’ve collected on various brands; marketers can more effectively access the data they need to create more highly targeted ad campaigns; and managers are more easily able to find the people and data they need to make critical business decisions. Companies like PG are finding that one vendor simply isn’t enough to satisfy their diverse needs. That introduces a new challenges: managing information and applications across multiple platforms. For example, PG found that Google search was inadequate because it doesn’t always link information from within the company, and its reliance on keywords for its searches isn’t ideal for all of the topics for which employees might search. PG decided to implement a new search product from start-up Connectbeam, which allows employees to share bookmarks and tag content with descriptive words that appear in future searches, and facilitates social networks of coworkers to help them find and share information more effectively. The results of the initiative have been immediate. For example, when PG executives traveled to meet with regional managers, there was no way to integrate all the reports and discussions into a single document. One executive glued the results of experiments into Word documents and passed them out at a conference. Another executive manually entered his data and speech into PowerPoint slides, and then e-mailed the file to his colleagues. One result was that the same file ended up in countless individual mailboxes. Now, PG’s IT department can create a Microsoft SharePoint page where that executive can post all of his presentations. Using SharePoint, the presentations are stored in a single location, but are still accessible to employees and colleagues in other parts of the company. Another collaborative tool, InnovationNet, contains over 5 million researchrelated documents in digital format accessible via a browser-based portal. That’s a far cry from experiments glued in no tebooks. One concern PG had when implementing these collaborative tools was that if enough employees didn’t use them, the tools would be much less useful for those that did use them. Collaboration tools are like business and social networks–the more people connect to the network, the greater the value to all participants. Collaborative tools grow in usefulness as more and more workers contribute their information and insights. They also allow employees quicker access to the experts within the company that have needed information and knowledge. But these benefits are contingent on the lion’s share of company employees using the tools. Another major innovation for PG was its largescale adoption of Cisco TelePresence conference rooms at many locations across the globe. For a company as large as PG, telepresence is an excellent way to foster collaboration between employees across not just countries, but continents. In the past, telepresence technologies were prohibitively expensive and overly prone to malfunction. Today, the technology makes it possible to hold high-definition meetings over long distances. PG boasts the world’s largest rollout of Cisco TelePresence technology. PG’s biggest challenge in adopting the technology was to ensure that the studios were built to particular specifications in each of the geographically diverse locations where they were installed. Cisco accomplished this, and now PG’s estimates that 35 percent of its employees use telepresence regularly. In some locations, usage is as high as 70 percent. Benefits of telepresence include significant travel savings, more efficient flow of ideas, and quicker decision making. Decisions that once took days now take minutes. Laurie Heltsley, PG’s director of global business services, noted that the company has saved $4 for every $1 invested in the 70 high-end telepresence systems it has installed over the past few years These high-definition systems are used four times as often as the company’s earlier versions of videoconferencing systems. Sources: Joe Sharkey, â€Å"Setbacks in the Air Add to Lure of Virtual Meetings,† The New York Times, April 26, 2010; Matt Hamblen, â€Å"Firms Use Collaboration Tools to Tap the Ultimate IP-Worker Ideas,† Computerworld, September 2, 2009; â€Å"Computerworld Honors Program: PG†, 2008; www.pg.com, accessed May 18, 2010; â€Å"Procter Gamble Revolutionizes Collaboration with Cisco TelePresence,† www.cisco.com, accessed May 18, 2010; â€Å"IT’s Role in Collaboration at Procter Gamble,† Information Week, February 1, 2007.

Communication As A Process Of Transmitting Information English Language Essay

Communication As A Process Of Transmitting Information English Language Essay Introduction What is communication? Communication is a process whereby meaning transmit information from one person to another. Communications are the important in the world for every human or animal. While many of people think communication only belong of human, in fact, animal will also know communication, they using like as body language. We have spent more than 70 percent to speak for working or communicate daily in our life. Todays, communicate are helping businessman to get success in their job, for example promotion of a product, customer services, and etc. A success company required a high quantity business communication. It is because communication can affect the customers confident and reliance. For example, have two salesmen are selling same of product, the first salesman has detail to promote his product and other one is simple to promote, when you asking them question, first salesman answer can make you satisfied, other one answer not fluent, even cant answer. According to the above situation, you will buy with which one salesman? In addition, good communication can help business to solve a lot of problem, let business just move upward. One will know other thinking and moods through communication language. It is hard to imagine a life where there is absolutely without communication. 1.3 Defined answer Communications divided to 2 types that are verbal communication and non-verbal communication. Verbal are easy to appear in our normal life, is one way for people communicate face to face. As a child grows, start to learn how to form these sounds into words. Some of key components of verbal communication are sound, words, speaking, and language. The other type of communications is non-verbal. It is transferring information a lack of words, but no meaning lack of vocalization. Some of key components of non-verbal communication are body language facial cues, personal grooming, hand gestures and graphical signs. On the basic of a communication process, is including a sender, Encode, channel, decode, a receiver and feedback only can be communicate. The communication process begins with the sender and ends with the receiver, the communication process is made up of key components are encoding, medium of transmission, decoding and feedback. communication-process-mbaknol.gif Diagram 1 1.34 Sender Firstly, Sender is faced with involves the encoding process to initiates the communication process. In order to convey meaning, the sender must begin encoding, which means translating information into a message in the form of symbol that represent idea or concepts and then, send that message to another person or organization to achieve some objective. The symbol can take on numerous forms such as, languages, words, or gestures. The senders may be an editor, a reporter, a filmmaker, a teacher, a writer or anybody who take the initiative to start a dialogue. 1.35 Encoding Encoding is the formulation of messages in the sender mind, that is, the sender not only translates his purpose into a message and also decides on the medium to communicate his planned message. Senders need to choose the media are suitable for receiver can comprehend well. For example, an illiterate receiver will fail to understand a written, but can understand it well if told with the orally. Actually the purpose of communication is to influence the receiver and get favorable responses. a message can enhance or distort effective communication. 1.36 Channel of medium To begin transmitting the message, the sender need used some kind of channel to convey the message. The kinds of channel have face to face, email, phone, fax, text message, advertising, group presentation, etc. choosing the appropriate channel, is can affect receiver to receive the message. It is because Success and fail of communication depends on the selection of the right channel. If sender relays a message through wrong channel, the message may not reach to the right receivers. That why senders need to keep in mind to selecting the appropriate channel will effectiveness of the receivers understanding. 1.37 Decoding After selected the right channel, the message will enters the decoding stage of the communication process. Decoding is conduct by the receiver. The receiver begin to receive the symbol sent by sender, then the symbol message sent to the receivers brain for interpreting, in order to make the symbols be meaningful. A successful communication takes place, when the receiver can correctly to interpret the senders message. It is these processing stages that make up are called decoding. 1.38 Receiver After decoding the process stages, the message is reach receivers brain. The receiver is the destination of the message. He may be a listener or a reader or a viewer of the message. He is a decoder who having understood the spirit of the message responds to it or gives necessary feedback. Sender can send their experiences, attitudes, knowledge, skills, perceptions, and culture to receiver through a message. But, needed follow sender between receivers their receptivity to the message, and the relationship and trust that exist. 1.39 Feedback After the receiver process stage, arrive the feedback process stages. Feedback is receivers response of the message. Feedback is the final link in the communication process. Feedback tells the source how the receiver has interpreted each message. The message, which conveys lack of understanding, is known as negative message. Positive feedback, on the other hand indicates that the receiver has understood the sources message. The effective communication is always sensitive to feedback and constantly modifies his or her messages as a result of the feedback received. 1.4 Noise Noise is can damage or disruption the communication and make it ineffective at anytime. Environment is one of the major causes in the case, which can interfere with message reception. For example, noise from the roadside, like blaring loudspeaker, faulty transmission, etc, there are can making communication be disruption. Noise also can occur in other form. Such as poor handwriting, heavy accent or soft speech, communication in a poorly lit room, etc. For the smooth and effective communication, required have a nice timing, suitable place, right receiver and necessary to eliminate noise as far as possible. 1.5 How to know audience has received the right message There are several ways that, we can ensure our audience get the right message, such as clarity, Completeness, Correctness, Conciseness and confident. 1.51 Clarity Clarity of purpose is wanted to add much to the meaning of the message and making the message easier to understand. The first stage is clarity in the mind of the sender. The next stage is the easier transmission of the message in a manner which makes it simple for the receiver to understand. Clarity written message is avoid receiver misunderstanding of message and save the time. The now of world, everyone doing their work or anything also required fast, so that, they will take very little time to read and understand the message. Therefore, sender will require send a clarity message to receiver, avoid waste more the time. Actually, clarity is depends on the four factors. That is short and simple sentences, proper punctuation, giving definite and concrete details and logical sequence of ideas. 1.52 Completeness Completeness is meaning completeness to show out your meaning or your point, when you in talking or writing. Sender required sending all of point in the message to receiver, if just sending half of point meaning to receiver. Receiver will cannot to understand the message. 1.53 Conciseness Conciseness is meaning expressing a message in few words. It is means keeping to the point, using few words as possible without lack of clarity. Conciseness is achieved by eliminating all redundant words. Only relevant words and phrases are permitted in conciseness. It is because those redundant words can make confuse to receiver, on another way, long written can let receiver be weary of listen or watch, then cannot to get main meaning. As far as possible, only simple and brief statement should be made. 1.54 Correctness Correctness of purpose is correct use of grammar, message composition and appropriate words and adapting the right level of communication to suit the receivers level, determine the correctness of communication. At the time of encoding, the sender should ensure that his knowledge of the receiver is same level. It is because same level of knowledge only can be communicated. For an example, one of people use the broken English to talk with another people, but that people is use profession English. Thus, they cannot talk with each other. Over writings, wrong spellings, faulty grammar, poor sentence construction etc may distract the readers and lead to misunderstanding. Therefore, it is essential that the sender should be sure the correctness of the information before transmitting it to the receiver. 1.55 Confident When to talking, presentation, explaining something or promoting, people should be confident. It is because, as humans have faith, do what matter will also can success. When be confident, your voice should be loud enough and at a controlled pace, and your body language should be strong with a straight back, meaningful gestures. When you have researched and prepared well, you feel confident, and you can let that shine through. 2.0 Question 2 As the Product Manager of a soon-to-be-launched product*, explain the methods, the mediums and the vehicles that you would use to communicate with your target audience to persuade them to buy your product. Produce one (1) advertisement for your product. *student may decide on whatever product that they wish 2.1 Define question 2 The now advertisement is very important in the world. It is purchase or takes some action upon products, ideas, and services to its target audience. They required know their name of a product or service and how that product or service could benefit the consumer. As in the following, consumer will buy these products and buying rate will increase. In fact, there are many ways to spread an advertisement message in the world. Such as online advertisement, print advertisement, electronic advertisement, and mobile advertisement. 2.11 Online medium Online advertisement is a simply a term relates to advertisement, it a form of promotion that via the internet for expressed purpose of marketing the message transmitting to the customers and attract them. In the online advertisement, the website web page is very important, that is could success on consumers being drawn to their products only in home page. It is because, every consumer will be watched in this home page, then decision whether he wants the information. The now, majority of the people spend their work and leisure time to sit in front of their computer on the internet. Thus, online advertisement also is the nice way to promote their product. In the online advertising have several different type of advertisement. Such as email advertising, web banners, pop-up advertisements and etc. 2.12 Print medium Advertisements are many forms to found in many places in the world. One of forms is known as print advertising, it forms is a traditional forms and very popular in the advertisement medium. It is because these categories of medium can reach such large audience, and the great numbers of specialized publications on the market enable businesses to focus on a target audience with a specific set of characteristics. Actually, print advertising have to divide into several type. Such as Newspaper, magazines, yellow pages, flyer and etc. there are all of print advertising type. 2.13 Electronic medium Electronic medium primary purpose is promoting to audience via electronic medium. Such as video recording, audio recording, multimedia presentations, slide presentations, TV advertising, etc. electronic medium also be a famous medium at the world. It is because the now multimedia are very useful, and very popular. Therefore, they using promoting their product via multimedia will have a lot people to watching. In addition, using multimedia have many color and important is have 3D images that is can to attracting many of audience. These are advertising can detail and lively to explain their product. 2.14 Mobile Medium According to human survey, people have 60 percent is in outside a daily. So that, use the mobile medium also is a best choice. It is because when people in outside will can using the vehicle or can see the vehicle. So that, at the time showing some advertising at the vehicle, people will go and see it. Mobile medium have to appear in some of place such as train the cases, bus the cases, etc. Another of mobile medium, is needed using in hand phone such as SMS, MMS, etc. These are use the message be advertising via hand phone. So that, this type of medium need from a people to send to each other. 2.2 Print medium to advertising Computer Pen Our companies are choosing the print medium to be our advertising. It is because print medium have many of benefit for our used and suit for use in todays world. Todays world, the pollution is more and more grave, we needed reduce any pollution are continues. So that, using print medium is the best choice, cause by print medium can recycle. We can use print medium such as newspapers to promote our company new launch product. Newspapers are inexpensive to promote the product, our only need to use a little money can do a very good advertising and it is wide a type of advertising, many of people are have to watch the newspaper. Another advantage of this medium is different rates and sizes, look at the various sizes of advertising in the newspaper. Newspapers normally have several standard sizes and all the sizes have their price in the newspaper. Actually, a newspaper is by a lot of news or advertisement being formed. So that, this also is a very popular of reason. In another of print m edium, such as magazines, flyer, etc. those are also very popular for young people, magazines have to attracting young people, it always is appear up to date new in the magazines, so that, young people very like. So that, our product if using this print medium to promoting is a best choice. Above of flyer is our company product, purpose of flyer is let audience can be understand what the product are produce in our company and attracting them to buying it. This flyer has to using WordArt to be the products name, let audience known what the name of product. In the top left and right corner have to use two picture to explain the function of production. Let audience can be clearing to know the function of product. The yellow color is to telling benefit of the product and it having to use Gungsuh font and 20 size fonts. It of purpose is let audience can be attention it. At the base, that is our company of name address and contact no, it is using red color to design the fonts. 3.0 Conclusion As a conclusion, business communication is an important and the best thing. In the business communication have teaching us how to communication with each other. In fact, communicate have a several of stage to process the communication. We need to clearing understand all of communication process. Therefore, afterwards we can use in society and our daily life. In my opinion, business communication is very useful in our life, this can when we are in the society, no need to scare about the communication and can process efficiency increased. Therefore, we must need to learn it, avoid afterwards have to appear any problem.

A Critical Evaluation of Charlotte Brontes Jane Eyre Essay -- Jane Ey

A Critical Evaluation of Jane Eyre Although Jane Eyre grows and matures, Margaret McFadden-Gerber views her as a relatively emotionally stable young feminist. Through the duration of the novel, Jane demonstrates her "self-love" that is often an influential emotion leading to drastic and hasty reactions. In the very opening few chapters, Jane takes a stand for herself and presents her bruised ego, pride and maturity. Sara Reed, her aunt, dismisses her place in the family as Jane is physically and emotionally removed from her "family's" activities. Jane grows up distinguishing her personality and voicing her unbiased opinion, but in McFadden-Gerber's opinion, Jane remains the same orphaned female in constant discord with elders and supervisors. Ms. Eyre is a heroine who refuses to blend into the traditional female position of subservience and who stands up for her beliefs. In the beginning, Jane at first de...

Standardization in the 1920s Essay -- Mass Culture

The 1920s became known as an era memorable for being a time when new products, new ways of marketing and advertising, and standardization gave the country new ways to interact, enjoy themselves, and introduce them to new products. Although very common today, standardization of mass culture like magazines, radio, movies, music, and sports were exciting new innovations to the people of this time. Not only did they distract from the monotony and stresses of work but they created celebrities that people aspired to be like. Similar to businesses standardizing in making and advertising consumers goods, the practice of mass-producing culture standardized and sped up in the 1920s. Radio became a national obsession. What started out as only a few independent stations soon evolved into huge networks and sponsored programming became popular. Movies during this time became accepted by all social classes with the expansion from rowdy nickelodeons to uptown theaters. With audiences nearing 80 million people a week, the corporate giants Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer, Warner Brothers, and Columbia made the ...

The Treatment of Women in Bram Stokers Dracula Essay -- Dracula E

The Treatment of Women in Bram Stoker's Dracula  Ã‚   In reading Bram Stoker's Dracula, I find the treatment of the two main female characters-- Lucy Westenra and Mina Harker-- especially intriguing. These two women are two opposite archetypes created by a society of threatened men trying to protect themselves. Lucy is the Medusa archetype. She is physically attractive, and wins the heart of any man who comes near her (e.g. Arthur, Quincey, Jack, and Van Helsing). Her chief quality is sensual beauty, but her sexual desire is repressed and not allowed to communicate. And yet both the spiritual side and the sexual side are in her, and when the long repressed sexuality finds a vent, it explodes and takes over completely. In other words, she is transformed into the completely voluptuous female vampire precisely because her sexual side of personality had been completely buried by her Victorian education. Her repressed self needs such expression that when Dracula came along, she went out to greet him, and then invited him into the house (by opening her window to the bat). He is her vent for sexual expression. When Lucy becomes a vampire herself, John Seward describes her as follows: She seemed like a nightmare of Lucy as she lay there; the pointed teeth, the bloodstained, voluptuous mouth -- which made one shudder to see -- the whole carnal and unspiritual appearance, seeming like a devilish mockery of Lucy's sweet purity (252; ch.16). And for this voluptuous Lucy he has no pity: "the remnant of my love passed into hate and loathing; had she then to be killed, I could have done it with savage delight" (249; ch.16). But why this attitude? I believe it is the aggressive sexuality that the vampire Lucy displays that ... ...in excluding her from their undertakings, and include her again. However, now that she is infected with vampire blood and is capable of reading Dracula's mind, the men both fear and need her. They are forced to accept her in the public realm, but the quest is to eventually rid her of evil influence and restore her purity again, that is, to turn her back into the virtuous woman who will stay in the dominion of the home and not pose a threat to men. The end of this novel is the restoration of a world as the Victorians know it: the vampire destroyed, the women rid of their evil sexual desires and kept out of the dangerous world outside their homes, and the men safe and free in a male-dominated world, playing their exclusive gallant, intelligent, and adventurous roles.    Text Cited Stoker, Bram. Dracula. Ed. Glennis Byron. Peterborough: Broadview, 1998.

Pharmaceutical Companies and How Their Health Information is Managed Through Clinical Trials Essay

Clinical Trials are critical to how pharmaceutical companies manage health information. Through the years the Federal Drug Administration saw many problems with the use of clinical trials and worked at fixing them. Regulations and guidance was put into place to ensure that sponsors of clinical trials; medical researchers, ethic committees and pharmaceuticals understand how they can efficiently carry out the trials while complying with federal law. Pharmaceutical companies rely heavily on these trials to determine how the health information gained is used for research and marketing on a variety of levels within the company including their main purpose of drug development. The clinical trial is an investigational product in human volunteers to examine effects from experimental drugs, medical device, or biologic, such as a vaccine, blood product, or gene therapy (Bren, 2007, 23). The main problem of many clinical trials in the past was the possibility of bias. Meaning any factor that distorts the true outcome of a study, that leads to overestimating or even underestimating the effect of a drug that was being investigated. But now with better FDA regulations stricter guidelines help to prevent this type of bias. When a pharmaceutical has a drug to market it must first submit an application to the FDA that shows data from controlled clinical trials. FDA then reviews the application to make a decision on whether the clinical trials are well-control or if they show the effectiveness of the product. It must also show that all available data show that the product is safe enough to allow it on the public market. Before 1938 pharmaceutical companies could market a drug without submitting any information to the FDA or for that fact any agency. â€Å"The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FD&C Act) of 1938 was passed when over 100 children died from taking a sulfa drug that had not been tested in humans† (Bren, 2007, 24). The FDA adopted the standard, after this incident, that the benefits of a product outweigh the risks. In 1962 new law created made pharmaceuticals responsible to prove that their drugs were both effective and safe if they wanted to market them to the public. Making clinical trial more efficient was needed. In an article â€Å"The Advancement of Controlled Clinical trials† Bren discusses the future of clinical trials in which the FDA see a future of improving clinical trials by standardizing and automating trial procedures, conduct and data processing. Another addition to the trials would be to use patient reported outcomes. â€Å"For systematic diseases, what really matters is how you feel, not how the doctor feels about you† (Bren, 2007, 28). Another important advancement in managing pharmaceutical companies is how they manufacture and the distribution of medication. This was called the Critical Path Initiative. This focuses on the path which medical products must travel from development to patients. The Critical Path Initiative is FDA’s effort to stimulate and facilitate a national effort to modernize the sciences through which FDA regulated products are developed, evaluated, and manufactured† (Bons, Aubert & Bonnely, 2000). Pharmaceutical companies had already recognized that there were weaknesses that needed improvement in clinical trials and that some could be easily improved while others would need a different type of organization, but in general that none of them were really difficult to address. Choosing an independent institute for conducting surveys and trial would give them an opportunity for impartial opinions in clinical trials. Human subjects is an important key in clinical development and investigators are the spokesperson for that study so improving investigator participation in clinical trials would help to improve subject participation and the quality of the whole trial. So looking at the clinical trial in itself would be how pharmaceutical manage the health inf

Theory of Data Communication

Btec National Unit 8 – Communications Technologies |Hand-in date |Return date | |Assessment No: 8. | | | |Assessment Title: The theory of data communications | | | |This assessment has been internally verified by: Edexcel | | | |Hand out date: 21/10/10 Hand in date: 21/11/10 | | | |On going assignment used as a delivery tool | | | This assessment provides the opportunity to meet the grading criteria for the unit as indicated in the grid below. Student Name: Learner Authentication Statement If you copy from someone else or allow another candidate to copy from you, or if you cheat in any way you may be disqualified from at least the assignment concerned. Any help or information you have received from people other than your subject teacher must be clearly identified in the work itselfAny books, information leaflets or other material (eg videos, software packages or information from the internet) which you have used to help you complete this work must be clearly acknowledged in th e work itself. To present material copied from books or other sources without acknowledgement will be regarded as deliberate deception. Declaration by learner I have read and understood the above statements. I have produced the work without help except for help from my subject lecturer and the help which I have declared in the work itself. I have acknowledged all source material in the work itself.Write suitable materials for Chapter 1, section 1 which explains the purpose and workings of basic communication devices and the principles of signal theory. Task 1b M1 Explain techniques that can be used to reduce errors in transmissions Add a section 2 to your guide (entitled ‘Error detection and correction’) which explains the techniques that can be used to reduce data transmission errors. Task 2 and grading criteria covered TASK 2 P3Describe communication protocols used and explain why they are important D1Critically compare the OSI seven layer model and the TCP/IP model W rite section 3 (entitled ‘Communication protocols’), which should include a description of the communication protocols in common use and explain why protocols are important.Write a detailed comparison of the OSI seven layer model and the TCP/IP model, commenting on the approach taken and the suitability of each of the models. Guidance notes THIS ASSIGNMENT IS VERY MUCH ABOUT EXPLAINING THE BASIC THEORY THAT LIES BEHIND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY. THERE ARE LOTS OF SOURCES FOR THIS INFORMATION IN BOOKS AND ON THE INTERNET, BUT REMEMBER WHAT YOU WRITE MUST BE IN YOUR OWN WORDS; YOU CANNOT COPY MATERIAL DIRECTLY FROM THESE SOURCES.For Task 1a you will need to list the various types of communication devices and explain how they are used. Note that the unit content makes a distinction between ‘general’ communication devices, network components (servers, workstations, NICs, etc. and interconnection devices (hubs, routers, switches, etc. ). For this task (covering P 1) you should be describing general communication devices, not specific components which are covered in Assignment 3. In practice, it might be quite difficult to make this distinction, but don’t spend too much time describing network components in this assignment. In terms of communication devices, the unit content mentions wired devices, such as DTE devices (e. g. , a computer) and DCE devices (such as a modem), and wireless devices (such as mobile phones, PDAs and laptops, etc. ). You need to explain in outline the way these devices can be connected to a network.To cover P2 an explanation of digital signal theory is required. Refer again to the unit content to see the issues you must cover. For Task 1b you need to write an explanation of the techniques used for error reduction. The only technique mentioned in the unit content is checksums, but other simple techniques such as parity might also be covered. For Task 2 an explanation of what protocols are, why they are importan t and examples of ones in common use are required. To achieve D1 you will need to write a detailed comparison of the OSI and the TCP/IP models. This will need to point out the similarities and differences between the two models. LEARNER INSTRUCTIO The theory of data communications | |By Olateju Famuyiwa | | This book gives details of the basics of communication devices and methods of communication used within networking and the | |internet environment. | Table of Content Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE)4 Wireless Devices4 The principles of signal theory5 Data5 Denary to Binary5 Data Packets5 Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmissions6 Bandwidth (Analogue)6 Bandwidth (Digital)6 Section2 Error detection and correction6 Parity (Odd and Even)6 Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC)7 Chapter 27Section3 Communications Protocols7 Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP)7 Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)7 File Transfer Protocol (FTP)8 Open Systems Interconnection (OSI)8 OS I Seven Layer Model9 TCP/IP Four Layer Model10 Critical Comparison10 The Session Layer (OSI)10 The Presentation Layer (OSI)10 The Application Layer (OSI)10 How OSI builds up applications10 How TCP/IP builds up applications11 Transport Layer (OSI)11 Transport Layer (TCP/IP)11 Comparing Transport for both Models11 Network Vs. Internet. 11 Data Link/Physical Vs. Subnet11 Assignment 8. : The theory of data communications I recently just got a job as a junior technician at NetCo; NetCo is a company that manufactures networking hardware such as switches, routers, etc†¦ They’re planning to start up a networking academy (rather like the Cisco Network Academy) and create related qualifications. The project manager has approached me so as to prepare some learning materials for ‘Chapter 1’ of the online course. Chapter 1 is entitled ‘The Theory of Data Communications’. The chapter will be subdivided into a number of sections. And I’ve decided that t he materials shall be produced in the form of a Word document. Chapter 1 Section1Identify and explain types of communication devices There are different types of communication devices; Communication devices are electronic hardware that interacts (communicates) with each other to perform specific tasks. The technologies that are used to communicate are data terminal equipment (DTE) and data circuit-terminating equipment (DCE). Another type of communication devices would be Wireless devices. I plan to explain all the above in detail. Data Terminal Equipment (DTE) DTE is a form of expression for a device that is at the end of the line. Examples of this could be a modem, network interface card (NIC), mobile phone or Bluetooth.DTEs differ depending on its purpose, for example, with Bluetooth, size and range are an important feature and with mobile phones, the quality and bandwidth are more important. Network cards and modems exist in a range of formats that are designed for a wide range of speeds i. e. bandwidth depending on the type of network being used. Data Circuit-terminating Equipment (DCE) DCE and DTE work together by the DTE connecting to the Internet or network service offered by the DCE. This is network equipment which controls the communication. Some examples of these are: †¢ A Bluetooth dongle in a PC, which is used to synchronise a mobile phone or PDA. †¢ A switch in a communications/server room at school, college or work, which will connect all the computers to the Local Area Network (LAN) and the InternetWireless Devices Wireless devices are devices which transmit their data over the air. Types of mobile communication devices would be third (3G) and (2G) group of mobile phones, wireless laptops and wireless PDAs. Wireless networks use the 802. 11x standard. This is the IEEE standard (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers) which defines the speed of the network and its range. The mobile phone network is a large connection of stat ions throughout the nation and internationally which allows subscribers to the service to communicate through low bandwidth voice system. The principles of signal theory Data The smallest portion of data is a bit.The word bit comes from Binary Digit which is either a 0 or 1. 0 or 1 means Off or On. This controls hardware within communication devices to perform operations. When bits are grouped together the can become more useful. For example, 8 bits of data will form 1 Byte. Denary to Binary Denary means 10 numbers. In our standard number system we have 10 numbers. These are: 0,1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9. Now to convert Denary to Binary, you must know the base 2 rules. These are similar to units, tens, hundreds that primary school children are taught. So for example say†¦ I want to convert the denary number 37 into binary. I would do this by taking the number and dividing it by 2 each time: Divide by 2 |37 |Remainder | |Divide by 2 |18 |1 | |Divide by 2 |9 |0 | |Divide by 2 |4 |1 | |Div ide by 2 |2 |0 | |Divide by 2 |1 |0 | | |0 |1 | Now what I do is take the remainders from the bottom of the table going up: 100101. With this I will now do 2 to the power of X, X being 0,1,2,3,4,5,6 etc. 25 24 23 22 21 20 – This is the 2x 1 0 0 1 0 1 – This is the binary for 37 32 16 8 4 2 1 – This is the base 2 ruleNow to check that the binary is correct I will take the base 2 numbers where the binary is a 1 and add them together. I should get the denary number: 32+4+1=37 This is how denary is converted to binary. Data Packets In networking, data must be formed in a package to be able to be transported over a network. Package formats vary for different types of networks. However the term data packet is always used to describe a package. A packet will contain a minimum of the foundation address, the destination address, data and error control. The foundation address is sent so the destination knows who sent the data. The destination address is used to find the r ight destination.Data is the actual information being sent. Error control is sent to help identify problems with the data once it has arrived at its destination (see chapter 1b for error detection techniques). Asynchronous and Synchronous Transmissions Asynchronous transmission means that the receiving device must accept the receipt of data before the source device will send more data. In synchronous transmission, both devices will synchronise with each other before any data is sent. Bandwidth (Analogue) Analogue signals are sine waves which look like the waveform in image 1. Sine waves are known as analogue signals is because they are an analogy of sound waves which travel in the same way.Analogue bandwidth is the number is cycles that occurs with the sine wave over a period of time, for example in image 1, the wave is 1Hz and occurred within 20ms so the bandwidth is 1Hzpms (1 Hertz per millisecond). So, finally, the bandwidth of an analogue signal is the difference in frequency be tween the highest and lowest frequencies contained in the signal. Bandwidth (Digital) Digital bandwidth is different to analogue bandwidth because digital signals are either 0 (off) or 1 (on) and look like squares (see image 1. 2). Digital bandwidth is the quantity of data that can be sent through a transmission over a specified period of time. These are generally measured in Bits per second (bps), Kilobits per second (kbps), Megabits per second (mbps) and Giga bits per second (gbps).Section2 Error detection and correction Parity (Odd and Even) Even  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Parity checking is usually used for Bytes of data. A parity bit is added to every Byte of data transmitted, whether the ninth bit is ‘0’ or ‘1’ depends on the combination of the other eight bits. If there is an uneven number of ‘1’s then the parity bit will be a ‘1’, if there is an even number of ‘1’s the parity bit will be a ‘0’. There should alway s be an even number of ‘1’s in the data. For example: 1011001 Parity bit = 0 Odd  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ This works the same way as even parity checking, however, instead of the ‘1’s equalling an even number, they should equal an odd number.For example: 1011001 Parity bit = 1 Parity checking is easy to apply and can detect errors, however, it cannot correct errors, therefore, if an error is detected the data would need to be transmitted again. This method does not always work, this is because only an odd number of bits in error can be detected, if there is an even number of bits but there is still an error, this will not be detected. For example: 1011001 could be transmitted as 1100011. This is not the way that the data should have been transmitted but the error would not be detected because the data has an even number of bits in error. Cyclic Redundancy Check (CRC) Cyclic Redundancy Check is an error-detecting system. It performs a long division equation where the ans wer is thrown away and the remainder becomes the result.The data is then transferred and the same equation is done at the other end, if the remainder of the equation isn’t the same as the receipt, the data is corrupt and therefore rejected. Chapter 2 Section3 Communications Protocols Hyper Text Transfer Protocol (HTTP) Hyper Text Transfer Protocol is a set of rules that order the distribution of information over the internet. Its use to retrieve hypertext documents, which are interlinked text documents, led to the development of the World Wide Web. HTTP is a request and response made by the client and server, the client being the end user and the server being the web site. A client that makes a HTTP request using a web browser is known as a User Agent.The server, which stores resources such as HTML files or images, is called the Origin Server. Between the User Agent and the Origin Server may be intermediaries i. e. a negotiator who acts as a link between parties and examples are proxies, tunnels and gateways. HTTP is not controlled by the TCP/IP model and is the most popular application on the internet. Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) The Internet Protocol Suite (or TCP/IP) is a set of protocols for communication used for the internet and similar networks. Its name derives from the two most important protocols in it, Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and Internet Protocol (IP), which are the first protocols in the Internet Protocol Suite standard.The Internet Protocol Suite may be viewed as a set of layers that work together in the transportation of data from one place to another. The TCP/IP model consists of four layers, from lowest to highest they are the: †¢ Link Layer †¢ Internet Layer †¢ Transport Layer †¢ Application Layer File Transfer Protocol (FTP) File Transfer Protocol is a protocol that is used to transfer data from one computer to another computer or device. FTP is a protocol for file transfer which allows the transfer and change of files over a TCP network. A FTP client connects to an FTP server and the client can then make changes, add or delete files on the FTP server. An example of an FTP client would be the webpage upload feature on Microsoft FrontPage.FTP has been designed so files can be transferred to any FTP server regardless of operating system type or version. Open Systems Interconnection (OSI) The Open Systems Interconnections Basic Reference Model (OSI Reference Model or OSI Model) is a description for layered communications and network protocol design. This was developed as part of the Open Systems Interconnection intelligence. Basically, network architecture has been divided into seven layers. From top to bottom, these layers are: †¢ Application †¢ Presentation †¢ Session †¢ Transport †¢ Network †¢ Data Link †¢ Physical This is known as the OSI Seven Layer Model. Each layer is characterized by their formation. These provid e services to the layer above and receive services from the layer below it.An example of this would be a layer that can provide error free communications across a network provides the path needed by applications above it. It then calls the next layer below it to send and receive packets that make up the contents. Comparison between the OSI seven layer model and TCP/IP model OSI Seven Layer Model The OSI Seven Layer Model is a model for data transfer through layered communications allowing data from one PC to be able to be read by another PC anywhere in the world. This model packets the data into many layers, an example would be the layers of an onion, so it then transfers itself to another computer where it goes through the same seven layers but in the opposite direction to unwrap those layers.See image 6 for the structure of an OSI Seven Layer Model. These layers don’t communicate across to their ‘doppelganger’ layer on the other computer. If they wish to commun icate, they have to go through all the other layers that stand between them and their ‘doppelganger’ layer. This table to the right is basically explaining what each layer’s job is. (Table obtained from www. humanreffence. com under the download section) TCP/IP Four Layer Model The TCP/IP model captures data to provide idea of protocols and services. Data is captured in the same way as data is within the OSI Seven Layer Model, so data has to be captured on each level in the same way.The OSI Seven Layer model and the TCP/IP model are both similar in that they both use layers to perform tasks. They also have 2 layers that are very similar, the Transport and Network layers. The TCP/IP internet protocol suite has a wide range of protocols working at each layer of the OSI and TCP/IP models. Critical Comparison OSI and TCP/IP are both similar in a few ways, these being that they both work with layers to communicate, they are both a set of rules and they were also devel oped alongside. The Session Layer (OSI) In the OSI model, the Session layer allows two devices to hold on going communications called a session across a network. This is not found in TCP/IP.In TCP/IP, these characteristics are found in the Transport layer. The Presentation Layer (OSI) In the OSI model, the Presentation layer handles data format information for communications across a network. This is done by converting the information into a common format that both sides can understand. This is provided by the Application layer in the TCP/IP model. The Application Layer (OSI) In the OSI model, the Application layer is the top most layer of the model. It provides a set of interfaces for applications to gain access to services within a network as well as access to network services that support applications directly e. g: OSI – FTAM, VT, MHS, DS, CMIP TCP/IP – FTP, SMTP, DNS, SNMPAlthough the idea of an application process is common within both, their approach to the task of constructing application entities is very different. How OSI builds up applications OSI demands that distributed applications operate over a strict hierarchy of layers and are constructed from a tool kit of standardised application service elements, making them compatible. How TCP/IP builds up applications In TCP/IP, each application is created on whatever set of functions it needs beyond end to end transport to support a distributed communications service. Most of these processes build upon what it needs and assumes that only an underlying transport method (such as a datagram or connection) will be provided. Transport Layer (OSI)In OSI, the Transport layer takes the data that is going to be sent and breaks it down into individual packets that are sent and then reassembled by the Transport layer at the destination. It also provides a signalling service which tells the sender that the destination had received the data has been successfully received. Transport Layer (TCP/IP) In TC P/IP, the Transport layer introduces two transport protocols, TCP and UDP. TCP implements reliable transportation of data whereas UDP doesn’t. The reason this is, is because TCP required acknowledgement to ensure that data is sent correctly and successfully. If an error is detected, the packet can be resent. UDP just broadcasts the data without any need for a reply from the destination therefore data transportation will be faster but will be less reliable as errors can occur.Comparing Transport for both Models Transport for both models is very similar as they both contain transfer protocols that required acknowledgement that data has been received by the destination. While this would be slower, this is more effective as data will always end up being sent correctly. Network Vs. Internet. Both OSI and TCP/IP support a connectionless network service. OSI’s CLNP is practically identical to the Internet’s IP. Both are best-effort-delivery protocols. They are virtuall y identical but the one major difference that sets them apart is that CLNP supports variable length addresses whereas IP supports fixed, 32-bit addresses.